A ratio developed by Nobel laureate William F. Sharpe to measure risk-adjusted performance. The Sharpe ratio is calculated by subtracting the risk-free rate - such as that of the 10-year U.S. Treasury bond - from the rate of return for a portfolio and dividing the result by the standard deviation of the portfolio returns. The Sharpe ratio tells us whether a portfolio's returns are due to smart investment decisions or a result of excess risk. This measurement is very useful because although one portfolio or fund can reap higher returns than its peers, it is only a good investment if those higher returns do not come with too much additional risk. The greater a portfolio's Sharpe ratio, the better its risk-adjusted performance has been. A variation of the Sharpe ratio is the Sortino ratio, which removes the effects of upward price movements on standard deviation to measure only return against downward price volatility.

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A reference given by one company to another regarding the creditworthiness of another company whom it supplies with goods. It is usual for two or more trade references together with a bank reference to be requested by companies prior to supplying goods or

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A foreigner who is a permanent resident of the country in which he or she resides but does not have citizenship. To fall under this classification in the U.S, you need to either currently have a green card or have had one in the last calendar year. You also fall under the U.S. Classification of resident alien if you have been in the U.S. For more than 31 days during the current year along with having been in the U.S. For at least 183 days over a three-year period that includes the current year. Resident and non-resident aliens have different filing advantages and disadvantages. For example, a resident alien can use foreign tax credits, whereas a non-resident cannot. However, in general, a resident alien is subject to the same taxes as a U.S. Citizen, while a non-resident alien only pays tax on income that is generated within the U.S, not including capital gains.

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